Karl Marx and Human Nature Essay

I have taken for my study one chapter from the book Marx and human nature by Norman Geras. In the second chapter Norman Geras deals with the human nature and historical materialism. Although many Marxists denied Marx’s theory of human nature that there was a human nature to be found in Marx’s words, there is in fact a Marxist conception of human nature which remains, to some degree, constant throughout history and across social boundaries. The sixth of the Theses on Feuerbach provided the basics for this interpretation of Marx according to which there was no eternal human nature to be found in his works. Feuerbach resolves the essence of religion into the essence of man human nature. But the essence of man is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In reality, it is the ensemble of the social relations. Feuerbach, who does not enter upon a criticism of this real essence, is hence obliged: Human nature Thus, Marx appears to say that human nature is no more than what is made by the social relations. Norman Geras’ Marx’s Theory of Human Nature, however, offers an extremely detailed argument against this position. In outline, Geras shows that, while the social relations are held to determine the nature of people, they are not the only such determinant. In fact, Marx makes statements where he specifically refers to a human nature which is more than what is conditioned by the circumstances of one’s life. In Capital, in a footnote critiquing utilitarianism, he says that ’’utilitarian’s must reckon with human nature in general, and then with human nature as modified in each historical epoch. Marx is arguing against an abstract conception of human nature, offering instead an account rooted in sensuous life. While he is quite explicit that individuals express their life, so they are. Hence what individuals are depends on the material conditions of their production, he also believes that human nature will condition (against the background of the productive forces and relations of production) the way in which individuals express their life. History involves a continuous transformation of human nature, though this does not mean that every aspect of human nature is wholly variable; what is transformed need not be wholly transformed. Marx did criticize the tendency to ‘transform into eternal laws of nature and of reason, the social forms springing from your present mode of production and form of property, a process sometimes called reification. For this reason, he would likely have wanted to criticize certain aspects of some accounts of human nature. Human beings collectively work on nature but do not do the same work; there is a division of labor in which people not only do different jobs, but according to Marxist theory, some people live from the work of others by owning the means of production. How this is accomplished depends on the type of society. Production is carried out through very definite relations between people. And, in turn, these production relations are determined by the level and character of the productive forces that are present at any given time in history. For Marx, productive forces refer to the means of production such as the tools, instruments, technology, land, raw materials, and human knowledge and abilities in terms of using these means of production. Human nature, Marx’s ethical thought and alienation Gears says of Marx’s work that: Whatever else it is, theory and socio-historical explanation, and scientific as it may be, that work is a moral indictment resting on the conception of essential human needs, an ethical standpoint, in other words, in which a view of human nature is involved . Alienation, for Marx, is the estrangement of humans from aspects of their human nature. Since – as we have seen – human nature consists in a particular set of vital drives and tendencies, whose exercise constitutes flourishing; alienation is a condition wherein these drives and tendencies are stunted. For essential powers, alienation substitutes disempowerment for making one’s own life one’s object, one’s life becoming an object of capital. Marx believes that alienation will be a feature of all society before communism. The opposite of, alienation is actualization or self-activity- the activity of the self, controlled by and for the self. Human nature and the expansion of the productive forces It has been held by several writers that it is Marx’s conception of human nature which explains the ‘primacy thesis’ concerning the expansion of the productive forces, which according to Marx, is itself the fundamental driving force of history. If true, this would make his account of human nature perhaps the most fundamental aspect of his work. Geras writes, ‘‘historical materialism itself, this whole distinctive approach to society that originates with Marx, rests squarely upon the idea of a human nature. It highlights that specific nexus of universal needs and capacities which explains the human productive process and man’s organized transformation of the material environment; which process and transformation it treats in turn as the basis both of the social order and of historical change. The tendency’s autonomy is just its independence of social structure, its rootedness in fundamental material facts of human nature and the human situation. Historical progress consists fundamentally in the growth of people’s abilities to shape and control the world about them. This is the most basic way in which they develop and express their human essence. Historical materialism Historical materialism started from a fundamental underlying reality of human existence: that in order for human beings to survive and continue existence from generation to generation, it is necessary for them to produce and reproduce the material requirements of life. Marx then extended this premise by asserting the importance of the fact that, in order to carry out production and exchange, people have to enter into very definite social relations, most fundamentally production relations. Norman Geras analyzed historical materialism and postulated that society has moved through a number of types or modes of production. That is, the character of the production relations is determined by the character of the productive forces; these could be the simple tools and instruments of early human existence, or the more developed machinery and technology of present age. The main modes of production Marx identified generally include primitive communism or tribal society (a prehistoric stage), ancient society, feudalism, and capitalism. In each of these social stages, people interact with nature and produce their living in different ways. Any surplus from that production is allotted in different ways. Ancient society was based on a ruling class of slave owners and a class of slaves; feudalism was based on landowners and serfs; and capitalism based on the capitalist class and the working class. The capitalist class privately owns the means of production, distribution and exchange (e. g. , factories, mines, shops and banks) while the working class live by exchanging their socialized labor with the apitalist class for wages. Marx identified the production relations of society (arising on the basis of given productive forces) as the economic base of society. He also explained that on the foundation of the economic base their arise certain political institutions, laws, customs, culture, etc. , and ideas, ways of thinking, morality, etc. These constituted the political/ideological superstructure of society. This superstructure not only has its origin in the economic base, but its features also ultimately correspond to the character and development of that economic base, i. . the way people organize society is determined by the economic base and the relations that arise from its mode of production. Historical materialism can be seen to rest on the following principles: 1. The basis of human society is how humans work on nature to produce the means of subsistence. 2. There is a division of labor into social classes (relations of production) based on property ownership where some people live from the labor of others. 3. The system of class division is dependent on the mode of production. 4.  The mode of production is based on the level of the productive forces. 5. Society moves from stage to stage when the dominant class is replaced by a new emerging class, by overthrowing the political shell that enforces the old relations of production no longer corresponding to the new productive forces. This takes place in the superstructure of society, the political arena in the form of revolution, whereby the underclass liberates the productive forces with new relations of production, and social relations, corresponding to it. Human nature and historical materialism Marx’s theory of history attempts to describe the way in which humans change their environments and (in dialectical relation) their environments change them as well. That is Not only do the objective conditions change in the act of reproduction, e. g. the village becomes a town, the wilderness a cleared field etc. but the producers change, too, in that they bring out new qualities in themselves, develop themselves in production, transform themselves, develop new powers and ideas, new needs and new language. The first premise of all human history is, of course, the existence of living human individuals. Thus the first fact to be established is the physical organization of these individuals and their consequent relation to the rest of nature. Thus History does nothing, it possesses no immense wealth, and it wages no battles. It is man, real, living man who does all that, who possesses and fights; history is not, as it were, a person apart, using man as a means to achieve its own aims; history is nothing but the activity of man pursuing his aims. So we can see that, even before we begin to consider the precise character of human nature, real, living humans, and the activity of man pursuing his aims is the very building block of Marx’s theory of history. Humans act upon the world, changing it and themselves; and in doing so they make history. But even beyond this, human nature plays two key roles. In the first place, it is part of the explanation for the growth of the productive forces, which Marx conceives of as the driving force of history. Secondly, the particular needs and drives of humans explain the class antagonism which is generated under capitalism. Conclusion and critical remarks Here I would like to say that Marxist philosophical anthropology is one sided. Its conception of human nature and human good overlooks the need for self identity than which nothing is more essentially human. The consequence of this is held to be that Marx and his followers have underestimated the importance of phenomena, such as religion and nationalism, which satisfy the need for self identity. In the study of human nature and historical materialism, history is what is made by human beings and its nature. According to Marx human beings are working and changing the world, Marx ignored all other factors that at work in the development of history. History has been developed not only by human beings but also through various elements. Historical materialism is caused by the production of things and there by arising social relationships. Here it implies that economy is the basic structure of society that controls and develops. But it is a reductionist approach, it is impossible to reduce the basic structure as economic relations alone.

Macroeconomics Final

Course name: Macroeconomics FINAL 1. The two large macroeconomies I selected are China and the United States. 2a. GDP and GDP growth rate Found on http://www. tradingeconomics. com/Economics/Interest-Rate. aspx? Symbol=CNY ChinaU. S. GDP per capita 2000-94934606 2001-102134518 2002-110634747 2003-120935318 2004-132336272 2005-145237050 2006-161237757 2007-181138138 2008-196338206 2009-NANA China U. S. GDP growth rate (avg) 2000- 7. 684. 15 2001- 7. 451. 08 2002- 8. 051. 83 2003- 9. 432. 48 2004- 9. 503. 58 2005- 10. 083. 08 2006- 10. 982. 65 2007- 12. 082. 13 2008- 9. 130. 43 2009- 7. 63-3. 55 2b. Exchange Rates used http://www. x-rates. com/cgi-bin/hlookup. cgi to find info US Dollar to Chinese Yuan 2000 -1 to 8. 2795 2001 -1 to 8. 2775 2002 -1 to 8. 2766 2003 -1 to 8. 28 2004 -1 to 8. 2767 2005 -1 to 8. 2765 2006 -1 to 8. 0702 2007 -1 to 7. 8051 2008 -1 to 7. 2946 2009 -1 to 6. 8295 2c. Inflation rates Found on http://www. tradingeconomics. com/Economics/Inflation-CPI. aspx? Symbol=USD CHINAUS JAN/DECJAN/DEC 2000- -0. 20/1. 502. 70/3. 40 2001- 1. 20/-0. 303. 70/1. 60 2002- -1. 00/-0. 401. 10/2. 40 2003- 0. 40/3. 202. 60/1. 90 2004- 3. 20/2. 402. 00/3. 30 2005- 1. 90/1. 603. 00/3. 40 2006- 1. 90/2. 04. 00/2. 50 2007- 2. 20/6. 502. 10/4. 10 2008- 7. 10/1. 204. 30/0. 10 2009- 1. 00/NA0. 00/NA 2d. Interest rate on short term government debt Found on http://www. treas. gov/offices/domestic-finance/debt-management/interest-rate/yield_historical_2000. shtml and http://www. tradingeconomics. com/Economics/Interest-Rate. aspx? Symbol=CNY China (JAN at 1 year on all)U. S. (JAN at 1 ye ar on all) 2000 – 5. 856. 09 2001 – 5. 855. 11 2002 – 5. 852. 28 2003 – 5. 311. 42 2004 – 5. 311. 31 2005 – 5. 582. 79 2006 – 5. 584. 38 2007 – 6. 125. 00 2008 – 7. 473. 17 2009 – 5. 310. 40 2e. Unemployment rate Found on http://www. radingeconomics. com/Economics/Unemployment-rate. aspx? Symbol=USD ChinaU. S. (MAR) on all 2000- NA4. 00 2001- NA4. 30 2002- 4. 30 (DEC)5. 70 2003- 4. 10 (MAR)5. 90 2004- 4. 30 (MAR)5. 80 2005- 4. 20 (MAR)5. 20 2006- 4. 20 (MAR)4. 70 2007- 4. 10 (MAR)4. 40 2008- 4. 00 (MAR)5. 10 2009- 4. 30 (MAR)8. 50 2f. Trade deficit Found on http://www. tradingeconomics. com/Economics/Current-Account. aspx? Symbol=USD ChinaU. S. 2000- 20519. 2-417. 4 2001- 22503. 9-398. 3 2002- 49051. 8-459. 2 2003-56995. 2-521. 5 2004- 76124. 5-631. 1 2005- 228081. 8-748. 7 2006-341448. 9-803. 6 2007-534691. 0-726. 6 2008-617825. -706. 1 2009-134459. 9-203. 2 3. Trends in each variable, What do they mean for econo mic conditions in each country? The trends shown in the GDP for China from 2000 to 2009 shows an increase from 949 to 1963, while the United States grows from 34,606 to 38,206. This shows that both countries are increasing which is good, and since the United States is already high, China will show more growth percentage also known as the catch-up effect. This is proven in the GDP growth rates calculated, where China holds a 7 to 12 percent increase, while he United States shows increases of 4 percent to decreases up to 3. 5 percent. Another fact proving China’s growth is their trade deficit. The trade deficit has remained positive and only gotten better over the years, while the United States has always had negative deficits. The exchange rate proves through the years that China is moving to an equilibrium with the United States dollar, but is still lower in the value of their yuan. Some of the credit for achieving this can be contributed to the fact that China maintains lowe r inflation rates than the United States. Other interesting facts is that China’s interest rates on short term debt remain stable while the United States was high in the early 2000s, low in the mid 2000s, and high in the late 2000s, until present at an all time low. China’s job unemployment rate also remains stable while the United States has recently risen quite a bit. 4. Analysis of strengths and weaknesses. My analysis of strengths shows that the United States overall per capita is wealthier than China. The United States currently has no inflation and interest rates are low. Another strength for the United States is that the value of a dollar is significantly higher than the value of a Chinese yuan. Strengths for China show that they are a trade powerhouse. China continues to grow and show improvements in their economy. They are currently undergoing the catch-up effect, and technologically they are advancing daily. Weaknesses show that the United States is struggling in 2009. Unemployment is on ongoing struggle with the economical lows we face. China is still per capita at a much lower GDP than the United States and still has quite a ways to go before their yuan is equal to a dollar. China also has much higher interest rates than the United States. 5. What conclusions can you draw from your analysis. My conclusion that I have drawn from this study is that for the United States, we are still doing well considering the economy today. Having a lower trade deficit than the average over the last ten years, keeping inflation out of the equation, and keeping a solid GDP is key when you are economically well off. My conclusion that I have drawn from this study for China is that they are a work in progress. China continues to grow in a positive direction on all the data I have collected. The per capita for China’s GDP has more than doubled in the past ten years, and the growth rate has been steadily increasing until recent years. The Chinese yuan continues to lower exchange rates. Though interest rates on short term government debt are higher than that of the United States, 2009 shows that it is at the lowest rate it has been in recent years. Unemployment for China has not risen, even with the economy suffering. Lastly for China, trade is continually growing, having risen over six times that of ten years ago! Overall China and the United States together have a lot of positive data to analyze. The United States main concerns over China are to keep unemployment low and trade deficits low as well. Also the United States needs to lower interest rates on short term government debt in order to grow. China’s main concerns should be to lower interest rates and inflation rates, while continuing to grow in GDP and lower exchange rates. Both countries are vital to the overall world economy. China is a leading exporter to the world. The United States is a leading importer to the world. Without trade and the rest of the world, China would have no one to buy their goods and the United States would have no one to buy from so cheaply.

Frank Lucas; American Gangster

Frank Lucas; American Gangster What is the one thing every person, white or black, rich or poor, American or Hispanic, wants to have plenty of in their possession? If it’s green, flimsy paper with different values on the front then money is the answer. Whether it’s 19th Century, 20th Century, or 21st Century, people work, steal, worship money. Human beings aren’t always satisfied with the amount of money they have, so they work harder, steal, rob, or cheat hoping to satisfy their money obsession. This describes the efforts and actions of an â€Å"American Gangster† named Frank Lucas. Frank did whatever it took to become rich to provide for his family, driving him to drug trafficking. Despite being a murdering, lying, threat to the North East gangsters involved with the drug trafficking, Frank Lucas elicits enthrallment from the audience due to his intriguing and charismatic character, emphasizing the pleasure of grasping possessions wrongfully will only bring you joy for a short period of time. Frank Lucas thought he had it all. He was dealing the most pure drug there was on the street during this time for a lower price, had a system that was literally untraceable, and was wracking in the big bucks. The question is why did Frank Lucas become like this and how did he become like this? Frank used to drive around the most famous dealer before he was shot and killed. Frank was close to this man, him being a father figure in his young life. Frank wanted to be like that, so he decided to start his own business in the drug trafficking business. Frank was power hungry like Satan in Paradise Lost. Satan used to be one of God’s angels until one day Satan decided he could be even with God and be on top. Just as Satan was trying â€Å"to set himself in glory above his peers,† (1. 39) so was Frank Lucas trying to set himself the â€Å"king† of the slums up north. What this lifestyle brought to Frank Lucas looked good at the beginning but got harder and harder as time rolled on. Frank became rich quick, helping out his family tremendously with financial problems. But as his business kept drawing attention, life became more miserable with threats to his wife and himself making his life more and more of a secret from society. The same goes with Satan. He begins to realize that trying to be on top isn’t going to be easy, â€Å"for now the thought/ Both of lost happiness and lasting pain/ Torments him. † (1. 54-56). Both Frank Lucas and Satan realizing there power thirst comes with major consequences they didn’t expect. Both Satan and Frank Lucas give the reader and audience an intrigue that is likeable. Frank Lucas has this way of carrying himself as the man around town, no one messes with him but fear him. That’s power that people are gravitated towards to like, being the â€Å"center of the world. † Also this intrigue rubs off onto Frank’s brothers. They are canceling there dreams in there mind because they want what Frank has, rich and fame. Satan also has that feature. The way he believes he can be equal to God makes you feel his confidence. You are intrigued in his decision making and are curious to see if he succeeds. He also is good at rubbing this business of his to other angels who end up following him. People look up to them and want what they have. In the end, both Frank Lucas and Satan have the urge to be the most powerful person, have it all, but don’t succeed like they had hoped. Frank Lucas gets caught and put in jail, and Satan has to keep wishing he could â€Å"have equaled the Most High† (1. 40). While they are both hated by the world they live in, the reader and audience begin to smile, and begin to feel a little likeness towards these characters especially for their intrigue ways.

SWOT Analysis of Shellys Business Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

SWOT Analysis of Shellys Business - Case Study Example Thus, it is true for the people who want to live their dreams and want to rule their own creative world. Clicking few pictures are a negligible part of a photographer’s life, professionalism comes with the thought of creating their own business. There are numerous aspects that need to be addressed when one is looking for setting a successful photography business. It forms a highly competitive market where every individual can own a camera and call themselves photographers. However, it depends on the credibility and acumen of the individual to make themselves different from the others (â€Å"Life through a Lens: How to Start a Successful Photography Business†). Conrad’s Photographer’s Supplies is situated in north end of Winnipeg in Canada. The owner of the business, Shelly Conrad is a photographer who has the desire to devote her time to professional photography by selling the business to the Bingley couple. ... Situation Analysis Shelly’s photography business has been doing well in the Canadian market since inception. Irrespective of that the owner is eager to sell the business so that she can continue her career as a professional photographer. She is willing to sell the business to Bingleys, who are interested to start a photography business. The Bingleys are quite impressed with the operation of Shelly’s business. They are happy with the type of equipments and fixtures that are owned by Shelly. But a SWOT analysis of the business will help the Bingleys to take the decision of purchasing the business from Shelly effectively. SWOT Analysis of Shelly’s business SWOT analysis is conducted in order to identify the state of the business. Strength The main strength of Conrad’s Photographer’s Supplies is the customer base. Shelly, the owner of the business has maintained a good relation with the customers so they naturally trust her with their photographs. The b usiness has got well acquainted in the community. Weakness The main weakness of the business is that it is taking much more time to run than expected by the owner. Thus, the business needs new improved ways for attracting customers. The business is operating from a shop which is taken in lease for three years. After the purchase of the business, if it fails to perform then the burden of the lease will be a problem for the Bingleys. Opportunity More and more people are getting into the photography profession which is making it more competitive with time. With the inception of digital cameras, the industry is expanding at a remarkable rate. Thus, there is opportunity for Conrad’s

Alexander Gorsky Russian Choreographer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Alexander Gorsky Russian Choreographer - Essay Example The end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century were characterized by a recovery period of the arts in Moscow, only ballet didn't experience any advances. The Moscow Ballet suffered the longest decline in its history. The theatre didn't have a position of choreographer, even in the staff list; the popularity of the theater was so low that hall was seldom filled to a one-third, and the company of the theatre included only 70 dancers. The only functioning department of the Moscow Ballet was the ballet school, for the most part, due to the talents and enthusiasm of V. Tikhomirov and I. Nikitin. Nevertheless, the Moscow Ballet required strong manager-director to change the situation with attendance and the theater repertory.Alexander Gorsky started on the position of the Moscow Ballet' choreographer with famous ballet Don Quixote". Actually, it wasn't a new development but a revision of Petipa's version. Alexander Gorsky spent 18 months to prepare the ballet for staging. He invited the famous painters Korovin and Golovin to develop the design and produce scene settings and dressing for dancers. Gorsky managed to revive the atmosphere of Spain in the ballet. Although I must admit that Gorsky staging of Don Quixote" was quite different to Petipa's one, he left some sections without a change. Gorsky interpreted ballet as an instrument in understanding a unity of art and performance."Don Quixote" was staged in 1900 and it became the herald of the Moscow Ballet recovery.... Alexander Gorsky as a director. The end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century were characterized by a recovery period of the arts in Moscow, only ballet didn't experience any advances. The Moscow Ballet suffered the longest decline in its history. The theatre didn't have position of choreographer, even in the staff list; popularity of the theater was so low that hall was seldom filled to a one-third; and the company of the theatre included only 70 dancers. The only functioning department of the Moscow Ballet was the ballet school, for the most part due to the talents and enthusiasm of V. Tikhomirov and I. Nikitin. Nevertheless the Moscow Ballet required strong manager-director to change the situation with attendance and the theater repertory. Alexander Gorsky started on the position of the Moscow Ballet' choreographer with famous ballet Don Quixote". Actually it wasn't a new development but a revision of Petipa's version. Alexander Gorsky spent 18 months to prepare the ballet for staging. He invited the famous painters Korovin and Golovin to develop design and produce scene settings and dressing for dancers. Gorsky managed to revive atmosphere of Spain in the ballet. Although I must admit that Gorsky staging of Don Quixote" was quite different to Petipa's one, he left some sections without a change. Gorsky interpreted ballet as an instrument in understanding a unity of artistism and performance. Don Quixote" was staged in 1900 and it became the herald of the Moscow Ballet recovery. In spite of the mixed comments of ballets critics, the theatre attendance began to increase. The next great

Since ethics and profit are actually not related, what reasons are Essay

Since ethics and profit are actually not related, what reasons are there to apply ethical standards to business at all - Essay Example First of all, it ensures that the company survives in the long term as it increases profitability and sustainability. However, the common consensus, most of the time, is that profit and ethics are opposed to one another, and hence, if a company is ethical, it cannot think about profits. In addition, many believe that in order for a company to be profitable, it should necessarily be unethical. In other words, this school of thought gives legitimacy for businesses to be totally unethical to make profits. There are instances in the history that make people believe that ethics and business are totally opposite entities. A perfect example is the Ford Pinto of Ford Motors. In 1978, three people died as the gas tank of the Pinto they drove exploded as it was hit in the rear. It was proved that the company knew that placing the tank in the rear end was vulnerable. However, the expenditure involved in changing the gas tank was $ 11 per car; an amount that is considerably less than the amount the company would have to pay in compensation for the few people who die as a result of explosion. So, the company decided not to change the position of the gas tank. In addition, law declared the company not responsible for the deaths. This incident clearly reveals how company can aim at profit totally neglecting what is ethical. In addition, such incidents generate the opinion that profit and ethics are alien to each other. ... Thus, the first and foremost ethical obligation for a company is to make profits for its stakeholders. In other words, its ethical duty is to meet the expectations of its stakeholders including employees and creditors. In addition, only a profitable company can fulfil its social responsibilities and welfare commitments. Though it is very evident that making profit is in no way against profitability, as Bandyopadhyay points out, there certainly are ethical questions about the methods adopted to make profit, and also about the amount of profit being made. A look into the business world proves that there are many large organizations that have successfully adopted ethical practices according to socially accepted norms. A look into World’s Most Ethical Companies Rank list helps learn how these companies turned ethical; according to this, UPS, one among them, reveals that ethics is the company’s business strategy (World’s Most Ethical Companies Ranking 2008). They clai m that being a good corporate citizen is an important element that keeps the company successful. The company that has operations in more than 200 countries does have an ethics program that meets international demands. The company has written ethics policies and a culture that reinforces the written policies. Another company that deserves attention at this stage is Google. Within 10 years of its establishment, the company is into a number of programs aimed at reducing its environmental impacts. As a part of this step, the company addresses challenging issues like climate change, poverty, disasters and disease. In addition, the company encourages its employees to participate in such initiatives. In addition, there are many companies like Xerox,

Should China's neighbours be concerned that 21st century China will Essay

Should China's neighbours be concerned that 21st century China will revert to Middle Kingdom dominance over them based on Chin - Essay Example It is a country with a great vision and focus and while its neighbors term it as a small a nation, its upcoming dominance might shake the world. The world has been under the influence of the current super powers who reign on the basis of their world war two military prowess. Their dominance is based on past events and the mindset that other small countries are inferior in their cultures and forms of governance. But according Martin Jacques believe Europe and the United States will eventually watch as China rises to power while their dominance and influence declines (Martin, 2009, Pg. 99). China has set its eyes to greater achievements by mobilizing the entire nation to move as one family towards a common goal. With great development policies the economy of China has been on the record in the past decades for its significant growth. It employs different mechanisms that are very outstanding and free from Western influence. Though the Western countries still relate the country to its pa st failures in terms of lack of their style of democracy, poor standards of environment conservation and tribal affiliations, China has picked herself from its past inequities to a more transformed nation. But their attitudes have diverted the Western nations understanding of China in its real present terms. Most of these powerful countries don’t believe that China will economic growth would last at all. The history of its past regimes failing to sustain the country is their point of judging the current regime. But over the past thirty years they Chinas leaders have all a common objective of steering the country to greater economical heights (Wang, 2003, Pg.122). Political regimes in these years have without been the most successful in the history of china. Therefore China now boasts of the greatest achievements in the recent times. The diversity and racial distribution in this populous nation is quite big and more unified than any other powerful nation. China looks at itself as a civilized nation other than influenced nation state. There is a closely knit tie that makes the society and the state a due to their attachment in their worship of ancestral ways (Brodsgaard, 1998 Pg. 88). Their traditions, Chinese foods and their unifying language give every citizen a sense of belonging in this country. This cohesion has been its source of development force over the years. China strives to empower every citizen despite of their race, culture or even religious affiliation. The country’s identity has been modeled by its history as a civilized state in terms of their way of thinking, identity and culture. Other powerful countries on the contrary have based their national identity on the past eras. This is evident in their ways of leadership and governance systems which have at most times divided their citizens in terms of inferiority. Such governance experiences a lot of opposition from their citizens. The luck of a united stand of these superpowers will be the source of their downfall in the near future as China braces itself to take over the world (Martin, 2009, Pg. 120). The United States and Europe have never given China a thought of taking over the world since they rule under the mediocrity of past WWII ideologies. But to their surprise the economic and technological advance of China will be the start of their downfall. China has for years improved its ties with other countries through trade and continued mutual

IKEA Analysis Report (Operations management)1 Assignment - 1

IKEA Analysis Report (Operations management)1 - Assignment Example The value proposition provides benefits both to the company and the stakeholder. It encourages the roles and tasks undertaken by the stakeholders to be in like with company’s objectives. It becomes the promotion proposition to potential clientele, the reason they ought to do trade with company, rather than its rivals. It communicates to the entire company a sense of precise purpose and course, coordinating their labours toward the overburdening common purpose of generating a satisfied customer. IKEA, the Swedish furniture industrialized company have applied Co-productivity to its complete exploitation. IKEA sells its commodities to customers in a kit type which the customer assembles themselves, at a lower pricing. The cause that this technique is successful is that customers do not place a worth on their own energy and time in assembling the merchandise. In some scenarios, the amount of extra effort inputted by the clients can be a greater cost than it could be if the get-tog ether of the furnishings were done proficiently (Porter, 2001). IKEA’s differentiation positioning strategy; the fundamental nature of a differentiation policy is to be exceptional in manners that are precious to clients in a sustainable method. Differentiation needs an in-depth comprehending what clients value most, where down the value chain to generate the differentiating variables, and what facilitates and capabilities are required to produce this exceptionality. It is that the corporation services a small number of market segments by offering a value intention that satisfies each section on a few key scope which creates this positioning strategy gainful. The key is to create product stand out from competitive provisions by having merchandise that provides a few highly valued elements. Distinctive capabilities are those potentials that a company can do better than competitors and are not simply imitated. For instance, IKEA can be said to have an idiosyncratic capability i n comprehending the customer. When this characteristic capability lies in a major accomplishment area, or a movement which is necessary if the company aspirations to stay alive in the long-term, it becomes a competitive gain. The value Chain The value chain is the organization of various products or segments of the company to offer valuable items. It involves proper planning, coordination and control of the company segments such as production, marketing, service and design and development. IKEA value chain is summarized as; the value proposal is the conclusion of the value sequence. There are two parts to the value plan: the consumer and the company. The company covers all of the domestic and external procedures that are executed throughout the value chain. The accomplishment or failure of the value plan will mirror how the members of the value chain recognize the external pressures on the value chain (Sheehy, Bracey, and Frazier, 1996). If these discernments are inaccurate, then th e worth proposition will be outdated. The value chain encompasses the customers and stakeholders expectations that must be considered. Manage the logistics of the company that ensure smooth flow of procedure. Ikea intangible products and benefits Currently IKEA has not concentrated on assessing the tangible advantages of its environmental

Security via technology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Security via technology - Research Paper Example Public key cryptography is a combination of elaborately created procedures and standards that are meant to protect communications from being listened to or tampered with or being affected by impersonation attacks. Public key encryption enables the free distribution of public keys and only the people who have been permitted are allowed to read the data that has been subjected to encryption through this key (Oppliger, 2011). Generally sending encrypted data entails encrypting the data to be sent with the encryption key that belongs to the receiver, and upon receiving the message, the receiver will decrypt the message using his or her own private key. In comparison to the symmetric-key encryption, the public –key encryption needs a lot more processing and may not be a practical option for the encryption and decryption of large amounts of information. Nonetheless, a public key can be used to send a symmetric key that can ultimately be used in the decryption of more data, which is the method that is employed by SSL/TLS protocol. Additionally, the decryption of data that has been encrypted using a private key can be decrypted using a public key that corresponds to it although this approach is not recommended when that data to be encrypted is sensitive (Vaudenay, 2005). Nevertheless, since it implies that any person who holds the public key, which is usually made available to everyone, has the capacity to decrypt the data. However, private key encryption is still useful as it means that the private key can be employed in signing data with digital signatures, which are critical requirements in electronic commerce as well as other cryptographic applications of a commercial nature. Mozilla Firefox, as well as other client software, can employ public keys wen confirming that a message has been signed with the proper private key and that it has not be interfered with after being signed. Even though the worldwide

What Is Meant by a Whats More B Essay Example for Free

What Is Meant by a Whats More B Essay When the phrase â€Å"A, What’s More B, comes to mind one may quickly think of the word parallelism.† Parallelism is the joining together of related ideas to form a complete thought† (Fields, 2008). Additionally, parallelism relates to the written communication between the phrases of poetic lines which are found in certain books of the Bible. Many examples of parallelism are found in the books of Proverbs and Psalms. When one completes a parallelism it is then referred to as a line. Each of these lines must include at least two or more poetic phrases and or colons. â€Å"Lines in this case are referred to as bi-colon and tri-colon, the first colon is referred to as â€Å"A† and the next line is referred to as â€Å"B,† generally, the second phrase carries the first thought forward in a more detailed way. Today’s understood pattern of interpretation is A, what’s more B† (Longman, 2010).According to Fields, (2008), â€Å"The number of lines in a thought unit is determined by the lexical (meaning) content of the lines.† Referring back to the question at hand which is; â€Å"What is meant by the phrase â€Å"A† What’s More â€Å"B†? This phrase is simply a pattern used to interpret. One may quickly reference this fact by reading some of the poetry that is written in Hebrew Bibles. A few examples of the usage of this biblical poetry patterns are listed below. My first example comes from the book of Psal ms. â€Å"Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light for my path† (Psalms 119:105). This verse can easily be written in parallel form such as; your word is; 1.A lamp to my feet 2.A light for my path In this example notice that the word lamp and light are paralleled as are the words my feet and my path are. My next example comes from the book of Proverbs, â€Å"My son, do not forget my teaching, but keep my commands in your heart† (Proverbs 3:1). This verse may be written in parallel form as follows; 1. My son, do not forget my teaching 2. But keep my commands in your heart In this verse we see that the words my teachings are paralleled to the words my commands. â€Å"Poetry is the type of literature which uses concentration literary devices to embellish the author’s message in a way that is memorable† (Fields, 2008). In conclusion, the author of this paper has explained to the best of her knowledge what is meant by the phrase, â€Å"What is Meant by â€Å"A† What’s More â€Å"B,† as well as has given a few examples of verses from the Bible broken down into parallelism as they refer to the connection of the different poetic lines. References Benner, J. (1999) â€Å"An Introduction to Ancient Hebrew† Retrieved on September 12, 2013 from: http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/1_introduction.html Fields, M. (2008) â€Å"Hebrews for the Rest of Us† Grand Rapids Mi. Zondervan Longman, T (2010), â€Å"How to Read Psalms† Retrieved on September 12, 2013 from; http://www.scribd.com/doc/27582639/Tremper-Longman-How-to-Read-the-Psalms

Human Resource Management At Mars Confectionery

Human Resource Management At Mars Confectionery This assignment will investigate how human resource management (HRM) contributes to the achievement of organisational goals and objectives, particularly looking at HRM activities such as staffing, performance management and change management. A discussion of several HR planning and development models will be presented including the model of traditional manpower planning, the integrated human resources planning framework and the systematic model of learning and training. Finally, an analysis of how appraisal systems are used to monitor performance in organisations will be undertaken, making suggestions on the shortfalls of this method and potential improvements. Discussions in this assignment will be retaliated to current information about Mars incorporated Ltd (Mars). Mars is a privately-owned, global fast moving consumer goods organisation specialising in confectionery, drinks and pet care. HRM Information of Mars was largely obtained from in interview conducted with a line manager in HRM at Mars. Information in this assignment obtained from the interview has not been referenced. Other information presented about Mars which has been obtained from other sources such as their website and books has been reverenced at the end of the assignment. Task 1: Human Resources Management Human resource management activities at Mars Confectionery This section will firstly discuss the HRM activity of staffing which is conducted at Mars. Staffing is the process of acquiring, deploying, and retaining a workforce of sufficient quantity and quality to create positive impacts on the organisations effectiveness (Burkholder, Edwards and Sartain, 2004). Secondly, the HRM activity of performance management will be discussed. Performance management can be understood as the process of creating a work environment or setting in which people are enabled to perform to the best of their abilities (Bacal, 1999). Change management is the third main HRM activity conducted at Mars. Change management is a structured approach to transitioning individuals, teams, and organizations from a current state to a desired future state (Cameron and Green, 2004). Staffing Human resource management at Mars is primarily concerned with ensuring that the organisation is appropriately staffed with the right people, with the right skills, at the right time. At the employee level, staffing has the objective of finding an employee who fits into the culture and value system and who is motivated and empowered to work for the organisation. Secondly, at the organisational level, staffing aims to maximise critical knowledge, skills and abilities within the organisation which contribute to its overall effectiveness and competitive advantage (Judge and Ferris, 1992). At Mars, these objectives are achieved through several means. Initially, a clear forecast on future staffing needs are established. These are determined at Mars by the organisational strategy and the predicted turnover rates based upon averages from previous years. Contracts for different groups of employees are then devised and employment packages are designed to attract the required employee skill levels. Relevant line managers who are familiar with the skills required for the certain role will be required to draw up role specifications addressing the certain skills and abilities needed. In addition to this, employees seen as no longer fitting into the organisations culture and value system are dismissed by HRM. Before dismissals occur at Mars, HRM places underperforming employees on a Performance Improvement Plan (PIP) to help monitor their performance and provide them with mentoring. Performance Management A second activity of human resource management at Mars is to ensure that employees are highly motivated and perform well within their roles. The main objective of enhancing motivation and performance is to maximise the effort employees put into their roles and to focus attention on performance targets. In addition to this, enhancing performance within the workforce also helps to raise levels of commitment and engage employees in developing new ideas (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p7). Enhanced employee performance is achieved by human resource management at Mars through employee training and development programmes which aim to increase employees capacity to adopt new technologies and methods. Training and development programmes allow employees to increase their career development through the organisation and reduce employee turnover through increased motivation and commitment. In addition to this, reward systems, such as promotion and bonuses, are also used at Mars to enhance performance through providing incentives and positive reinforcement. Change Management Another activity of human resource management at Mars is to make sure that organisational change interventions are successful and run as smoothly as possible. For example, Mars has recently implemented change programmes such as TQM and six sigma. These have required substantial changes to the organisations culture and work systems. It was HRs role to help with the planning of this implementation and to make sure that the necessary training and support was available to the workforce when implementation began. These objectives are achieved by HR at Mars through recruiting and developing people with the necessary leadership skills to help drive the change process. In addition to this, agents are also recruited by HR to encourage the acceptance of change by the workforce and construct reward systems to reinforce new behaviours. HR also takes a leading role in assessing the likely impact of change on employees as well as supporting them during the change programme. This is achieved through preparing information to help them cope with the process and developing a timeline for change. HR at Mars also has a critical role in assessing whether the change programme had been successful and monitoring whether it has produced the required return on investment. They achieve this objective through conducting employee survey to obtain feedback on employee perceptions regarding the change and how it was conducted. In summary, the three HRM activities of staffing, performance management and change management at Mars are essential for the smooth running and development of the Mars organisation. Theoretical models of human resource management This section will describe two influential models within HRM. Firstly, the Harvard model by Beer et al. (1984) is an analytical model which views employees as significant stakeholders within the organisation with their own needs and concerns (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p34). Secondly, the Michigan or Matching model will be addressed. The Michigan model states that the control of HRM is the responsibility of senior management and sees employees as resources in the same way as any other business resource (Price, 2007 p39). The Harvard Model The model acknowledges that management has the greatest power within an organisation but suggests that for effective HRM, the needs of employees must be always be considered. For example, the model shows HRM policies to be influenced by two significant considerations: situational factors (workforce characteristics, management philosophy and labour market) and stakeholder interests (employee groups, community and unions). This shows that effective HRM should not be a reactive function but continually help monitor and adjust the organisations policies to meet the forever changing needs of the workforce and environment in which it operates. In addition to this, the model also acknowledges the need for HRM mechanisms to reconcile the inevitable tension between employee expectations and management objectives. For example, the implementation of rewards and structured work systems allow for the organisation to nurture the values of commitment, competence, congruence and cost effectiveness within the workforce. To achieve long term HRM objectives of individual wellbeing, organisational effectiveness and social well being, the Harvard model suggests that it is essential that all must be responsible for human resource and consider issues such as delegation, leadership, participation and team building. The Michigan Model Unlike the Harvard model, the Michigan model (Fombrun et al, 1984 p41) takes a top-down approach suggesting that the control of HRM is the responsibility of senior management and sees employees as resources in the same way as any other business resource (Price, 2007 p39). For example, the model highlights areas such as selection, appraisal, rewards and development but ignores the influence of employee needs and situational factors upon the organisation. Instead, the model views that employees have to be managed like equipment; obtained as cheaply as possible, used sparingly, and developed and exploited as much as possible (Price, 2007 p39). The Michigan model also shows that employees must be selected and trained to fit the strategic requirements of the organisation and show behavioural consistency with their ways of thinking and operating (Price, 2007 p41). For example, if there is an organisational strategy of innovation, employees will be expected to show long term creativity and skill. This is displayed by the great emphasis upon selection, performance and appraisal within the model. In contrast to the Harvard Model, the Michigan model shows HRM to be a reactive organisational function which under-emphasises the importance of social and external factors. For example, the model places emphasis on the importance of selection, performance, appraisal, rewards and training, but make no reference to employee needs and interests, and environmental factors such as employee groups, community and unions. This means that the model would be unable to factor in current concerns such as employee work-life balance. In summary, the Harvard and Michigan models both show two contrasting perspectives of effective HRM. Although they are both highly applicable models in their own right, it could be suggested that Harvard model is the most applicable to the HRM of today, taking into consideration current concerns of work-life balanced. Task 2: HR Planning and Development Three HR planning and development models This section will describe the two HR planning models of Traditional Manpower Planning and Integrated Human Resources Planning Model; and the HR development model of Systematic Learning and Training. Human Resource Planning Human resource planning is the process of managing when people enter, move through and leave business organisations in accordance with the overall objectives of the business. HRM needs to assess the future demand for staff and the availability of suitable staff to meet their requirements (RDI, 2008 p2.3 ff). 1. Model of Traditional Manpower Planning The model of traditional manpower planning is a more traditional human resources planning model emphasising the importance of obtaining the right number of the right employees in the right place at the right time (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p51). The model suggests that demand for employees is strongly influenced by organisational strategies and objectives, the environment, and the way in which staff are managed and utilised (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p51). Environment Organisational objectives and strategies Analysis of internal manpower supply Analyses of external manpower supply Project manpower demand Project manpower supply Manpower plans Reconcile Figure 3: Model of traditional manpower planning. Adapted from (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p51). When applying the model of traditional manpower planning to Mars, it could be recommended that Mars begins by analysing the changing environment in which it operates. For example, the recent takeover of Cadburys by Kraft has meant that Mars strategy has become more defensive making sure that maintains its competitive advantage within the industry. Mars must begin to project manpower demand and supply to make sure it is able to recruit the right people with the right skills to facilitate its new defensive strategy. For example, one option for Mars is to target and recruit former Cadburys and Kraft managers to obtain important competitor information. Before it can fulfil this recruitment strategy, the model suggests that Mars must assess the availability of such knowledge within job the market. 2. Integrated Human Resources Planning Model Unlike the model of traditional manpower planning, the integrated human resources planning model brings together all aspects of HR planning and considers the effects of culture, systems and environment on employee demand (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p52). The model identifies where we want to be based upon the organisations strategy; where we are now; and what we need to do to get there. Environmental Influences Where are we now? Translate vision Where do we want to be? Design and use plans to achieve transition Strategic Vision Figure 4: Integrated Human Resources Planning Framework. Adapted from (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p52). When applying the integrated human resources planning model to Mars, Mars would firstly need to address where we are now; analysing the environment to determine what customers want and what competitors are doing. For example, from analysing the current confectionery market, Mars will determine that there is increasing competition from Cadburys due to its recent takeover by Kraft. Also, they would be able to determine from the analysis of customer requirements that there is a need for better customer service and lower prices. Based upon the model, Mars would then have to address where we want to be; translating environmental influences into strategic objectives which can be used to determine human resource goals. For example, for Mars to compete against Cadburys they must establish human resources goals to make sure that their hire talented managers who can bring new skills and capabilities to Mars. In addition to this, Mars should address what do we need to get there; addressing the resources and time-scales needed to fulfil the strategic objectives. Mars would need to decide on what type of skills and personalities they need to recruit, how many new employees they need to recruit and how they are going to advertise the positions. Human Resources Development HR development is a strategic approach used to invest in human capital. It draws on other HR processes including resourcing and performance assessment to identify actual and potential talent (RDI, 2008 p2.22). The systematic model of learning and training was developed to help organisations move away non-evaluated training, replacing it with a more orderly sequence of development. 1. Systematic Model of Learning and Training Environment Business Strategy People Development Strategy Identify development need Design development activity Carry out development Evaluate development Figure 5. A systematic model of learning and training. Adapted from demand (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p391). According to the model, the changing environment and business strategy help to shape the type of skills and abilities required in the workforce. These developmental needs can be identified by both the individual and organisation through a problem centred approach (where a new strategy may highlight a shortage of a particular skill within the workforce) and developing an individuals competency profile to meet the job requirements. For example, the changing business strategy at Mars to improve internal computer systems has revealed a potential gap IT technical skills. When a gap in skill has been identified, the model suggests that the development required needs to be planned and developed. The planning and design of the learning will be influenced by HR development strategy, which may determine who is involved in the training and type of methods used. For example, HR at Mars has planned and developed a learning programme with trained IT trainers to visit the business and develop employee IT skills whilst at work, but not divert too much of their time away from other more important tasks. In summary, when an organisation such as Mars adapts to changing environments through with new strategic objectives, it often requires new skills to be brought in or developed within the company. These changes in workforce requirements can either be planned and remedied through recruitment, or development can take place to enhance and build upon existing employee skills and abilities. Planning and development models that are most effective in helping an organisation to meet is objectives are these which take a more holistic approach and are able to adapt to changing organisational requirements. Effectiveness in achieving organisational objectives An organisational objective at Mars is to gain and maintain competitive advantage through a highly skilled and motivated workforce. Although the model of traditional manpower planning is effective in allowing Mars to plan for and fulfil future workforce needs, the model does not take into consideration the need for Mars to plan for issues such as employee behaviour, personality and fit within the organisations culture. In contrast to this, the integrated human resources planning model is very effective in allowing Mars to achieve this strategy. Unlike the model of traditional manpower planning, the integrated human resource planning model is able to integrate the need of the organisation to obtain highly skilled employees with the need for them to have the right fit within the organisational culture. In addition to this, the model is able to adapt to the continuous changes to Mars strategy which is central to the manpower planning framework. The systematic model of learning and training is also effective in allowing Mars to achieve its organisational objective to gain and maintain competitive advantage through a highly skilled and motivated workforce. The model provides an integrated framework to allow Mars to plan learning programmes and to develop workforce skill around organisational strategies and environmental changes. Despite this, the model has the limitation of being too systematic and potentially unable to relate to the fast pace of continuous change evident at Mars (Sloman, 2001). In summary, it could be recommended that Mars adopts a combination of the integrated human resources planning model and the systematic model of learning and training. Through using a combination of these two models, Mars would be able to adequately plan for and hire appropriate staff and then develop skills to meet their strategy needs. Task 3: Performance How HR performance is monitored at Mars This section will discuss how appraisal systems are used at Mars to monitor performance. Performance appraisal systems are a formalised process to review performance at work over a given period of time (Grote, 1996). Mars uses a method whereby role objectives or targets are established by the employee and line manager throughout the year and are later reviewed at the next appraisal. Assessments are made to measure the extent to which these objectives have been met throughout the year. Mars believes that performance expectations need to be understood and involve contribution from employees to allow for a greater degree of input and commitment. The objectives set by employees at Mars are closely monitored by the line manager to make sure that they appropriately stretch the individual and offer personal development as well as meeting the needs of the role. The objectives set by the employee and line manager are prioritised according to importance and how urgently they need to be addressed. Prioritising objectives in this manor allows the employees to manage their time more effectively through addressing the most important objectives first. In addition to this, Mars also uses the SMART system for describing individual targets and objectives. Before a target can be set by the employee, the line manager must make sure that the target is Specific, Measurable, Appropriate, Relevant and Timed. Ensuring that the target meets these criteria means that the objectives are meaningful and reliably assessed. Regular brief meetings are set between employee and manager, as objectives are met, to discuss progress and decide on whether new objectives need to be added or whether some objectives need to be removed. Problem areas are highlighted and discussed, and ongoing coaching is given by managers to help guide employees by giving constructive feedback. 360 degree appraisals are used at Mars to allow for a more fair and stringent method of performance assessment. Performance is monitored and assessed by a variety of people in contact with the individual, including, line managers, peers, clients, suppliers. Obtaining appraisals from a variety of sources allows for a fuller picture to be built up of the performance and capabilities of the individual in many different areas of their work. The outcome of appraisal systems at Mars is directly linked to the salary and promotions. For example, if employees are rated during their appraisal as exceeds expectations, they will receive a 4% pay raise the following year. Employees rated as below expectations can be placed on a Performance Improvement Programme which means that their performance is closely monitored throughout the year and they are provided with mentoring to improve problem areas. Although it appears that Mars has a very stringent approach to performance appraisals, it is important to understand how Mars uses this information after it has been obtained and whether line managers have received the correct training to make sure they are collecting information fairly. Effectiveness of the appraisal system at Mars and potential improvements. The appraisal system at Mars is very effective in obtaining reliable and useful information regarding employee performance. One way in which Mars maintains the effectiveness of its appraisal system is through making sure that line managers are properly trained to conduct appraisals. Managers are required to attend a yearly training session supported by human resources where they informed about the most effective ways of monitoring process and supporting their employees through development. Training is also provided on how to record appraisal information efficiently and how to conduct 360 degree appraisals. Despite the stringent approach to performance appraisals at Mars, appraisal have been criticised for being too subjective (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005). Sometimes appraisals can be unreliable through prejudice when the appraisers judgement is distorted because they dont like the appraisee. Also appraisals can be unreliable when the appraisers have insufficient knowledge of the appraisee. This is particularly the case when appraisers carry out appraisals due to their position in the company hierarchy rather than their knowledge of the appraisee. In addition to this, appraisals can cause a lot of anxiety and stress for all involved. Research about appraising performance has found that the appraisal itself was often accompanied by long periods of sickness absence due to stress (Grint, 1993). This is a potential problem at Mars because appraisals are directly linked to employee pay and promotion which may create a lot of stress for individual employee. Effectiveness of appraisals at Mars can be improved further making sure that all involved in the 360 degree appraisal understand what the system is for and the importance of accuracy. Research suggests that questions will be answered more accurately when participants understand the true purpose of the appraisal (Grint, 1993). In addition to this, plenty of feedback should be given to those involved in appraisals as research also suggests that feedback allows for the system to be better accepted and reduces anxiety (Grint, 1993). In summary, Mars has a very stringent approach to performance appraisals. They believe that it is important to obtain a full picture of the individual, from many different sources and allow the individual to play an active role in shaping their own objective and target setting. Despite this, improvements can be made to make sure that stress is kept to a minimum and proper training is provided to make sure that appraisals are not biased in anyway. Assignment Conclusion To be successful in a fast changing global economy, organisations must invest more time and resources into the acquisition and development of high calibre employees. HRM has a vital role to play in this strategy through performance management, recruitment and change management. In the example of Mars, HRM is continually facilitating an environment where employees can improve their skills and competencies through professional development programmes and performance appraisal. Although Mars has well developed HRM policies, to remain competitive, they must continue to invest time and resources into HRM to continue to obtain the right employees, with the right skills at the right time.

Social interaction and the development of infants

Social interaction and the development of infants In the first two years of an infants life, they undergo many changes that allow them to develop into a fully functioning human being. These developments are controlled by internal and external factors. Social interaction is an exceedingly influential external factor, which can help to form many aspects of development. For example, infants in the first two years of their lives are learning to differentiate between social stimuli, for example recognising mothers face and voice. This is mastered by the infant in a relatively small time scale after birth (Mills Melhuish, 1974). The child can then use this new learned ability to interact with its caregivers, even without understanding the social meaning of their actions, for example when a child smiles, the child is not aware of what a smile means in our society, but when the caregiver sees this sign of emotion, they cannot help but to smile back, and positively reinforces that learned action to the child. To see how important social int eraction is for the development of a child in the first two years of its life, it is important to observe key areas of behaviour such as attachment to others, the childs temperament and their language acquisition. One of the most researched areas of development in children is attachment and how we form them. Attachment, as defined by Ainsworth and Bell 1970, is an affectional tie that once person forms between himself and another specific one. This is the first strong social connection that infants have to another human being/s. Research by Shaffer and Emerson, conducted in 1964, and suggested that there are three stages in the development of primary attachments; the asocial stage, the stage of indiscriminate attachment and the stage of specific attachment. The asocial stage, which spans from birth to six weeks, is when the infant uses signals to interact with its environment, for example crying, babbling, and smiling and so forth, which is not aimed specifically to anyone. The second stage of indiscriminate attachment, the infant has learnt that if it cries it will receive attention, but is still not aimed at a particular individual and the child can be comforted by anyone. This stage lasts u ntil around seven months after birth. The last stage, specific attachment, can be observed between seven and eleven months, and is suggests that the infant will start to form specific attachments to caregivers, a bond is then made, and will no longer accept comfort from others. Bowlby (1988) described that the need for social attachment between the infant and its caregiver is because the infant needs to actively seek to attain or maintain proximity to another individual that is more attuned to their surroundings and can provide for the infants needs (attachment behaviour). There have been three key theories to try and explain why we form attachments, and if it is important for children to form social bonds in the early stages of life. The psychoanalytical theory proposes that feeding and the production of food is the main reason why we form attachments. Based on Freuds psychosexual stages, this theory focuses on the oral stage (the first of the stages), and suggests that the child gets pleasure from attaining food through sucking behaviour (Miller, 1993). Erikson in his stage theory (1950, 1968) states that the first year of life is where the infant establishes trust between themselves and a caregiver, who in return provides nutrition and comfort. Without this trust, the child does not know whether they will be provided with the vital source of support that the child needs to survive. There are two main learning theories, the first being the early learning theory. The psychoanalytical theory is closely linked to this theory, as they both suggest that being provided with food is the main reason why we attach. This theory revolves around the secondary drive hypothesis by Dollard and Miller (1950), which explains that infants attach to the mother to gain access to important things that are needed for survival, things that they cannot provide for themselves for example food and warmth, all of which soothe the childs cries. This social interaction between the mother and the child then allows for the infant to associate this with the caregiver, and the bond is strengthened. However, this hypothesis disagrees with research conducted by Shaffer and Emerson (1964), which found that the infant can become attached to more than one caregiver, who is not necessarily the sole provider to the physiological needs of the child. The second learning theory for attachment is the social learning theory devised by Hay and Vespo, (1988). The theory states that the child does not automatically become attached to the mother, or caregivers, but that the caregivers has to interact with the child and show them affection, for the child to feel a connection with them, from which they can then form a relationship together. Another theory of attachment is Ethological theory, which states that there is an evolutionary role in the reasoning of why we as humans attach. The theory suggests that mothers before birth are already biologically predisposed to become attached to their offspring, and therefore ensures that they survive, and the species can continue. Research to support this theory was mainly collected by Bowlby (1969, 1980), who suggests that attachment is monotropic; focused on only one caregiver, namely the mother. However, research by Ainsworth (1979) disagrees with Bowlbys theory of monotropy, and suggests that infants form more than one attachment to many different caregivers. This is supported by Shaffer and Emersons study, which displayed attachments to other close family members for example grandparents and fathers. It has also been found that siblings can also be important in contributing to the social development of infants (Adler, 1964). These three theories suggest that attachment between the infant and its caregiver is formed relatively easily, but comparatively, if a child has little to no access to social interaction in the first two years of their life, it can be particularly harmful to the childs development. This can be explained by the social stimulation hypothesis which can be observed in research collected in the 1940s, which showed the children growing up in institutions had a low staff to child ratio and so rarely had any interaction with a caregiver. Children were also segregated from each other, and so were cut off from all forms of social stimulation. At first the infants acted no different from those brought up in normal family homes where the children are given lots of attention and interaction, but after six months there was a noticeable difference; the childrens behaviour changes and the children were completely avoidant of any social activities (negative working model of the self) and see that the y are not getting noticed by others (negative working model of others), (Goldfarb, 1943). This research implies that children need constant social interaction to develop properly. Bowlby (1953), after studying institutional care after the Second World War, saw that the care that the children were receiving was more physical, and not for their emotional needs. He developed the maternal deprivation hypothesis; suggested that infants should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his mother. Conversely, infants in institutions in which there are a much higher staff to infant ratio generally interact normally with their caregivers and develop well throughout life and suffer fewer effects (Tizard and Rees, 1975). Language is another element of develop in the first two years that is strongly influenced by social interaction. There are three main theories that discuss what influences our language acquisition. The learning/empiricist perspective explains that children learn their language by listening to their parents speech and imitating it (Bandura, 1971) and by positive reinforcement when the infant says something grammatically correct (Skinner 1957). Research by Weisman and Snow (2001) found that if caregivers expose their children to more advanced words earlier on in life, then the childs language will be more developed than other children of the same age group. However, it has been argued that children cannot learn syntax this way, as seen by Baron (1992), when children are just learning new sentences; they create statements that adults do not say and therefore could not have imitated. Chomsky (1959, 1968) disagrees with the learning perspective and suggests a more biological/nativist approach and not a social implication. He suggests that language is too complicated for it to just be learned from caregivers, instead that children born with an innate language acquisition device (LAD) in the brain which processes verbal input. Slobin (1985) thinks that we have an inborn language-making capacity (LMC) instead of an LAD. Both of these systems supposedly enable infants to combine vocabulary that has been collected in the brain, enables them to understand what it means, and then can use this knowledge to create sentences. Lenneberg (1967), combined the two theories of Chomsky and Slobin, and suggests the sensitive-period hypothesis, which states that the best time to learn a language is before adolescence; after this period has been reached language becomes very difficult to learn. For example, a case study of 14 year old Genie (Curtiss, 1977), who until this age was ke pt locked away with little to no social interaction, and was beaten by her father if she made any noise. When Genie was discovered, she had not had access to language and so could not speak. When she was taught language, she was able to conjure up sentences quite easily, however she was unable to acquire the rules of syntax, which young children learn early on in life without being taught to, supporting Baron (1992) theory. However, Moerk (1989) suggests that language development cannot be explained using LAD or LMC because the researchers themselves do not understand how they work, and how the information received in the brain is processed and understood. The interactionist perspective suggests that both empiricist (social) and nativists (biological) perspective both contribute to learning acquisition (Tomasello, 1995). A third factor for development that is influenced by social interaction in childhood is temperament. A definition of temperament as described by Hartup and Van Lieshout (1995) is a substrate for personality development, consisting of simple, basic styles that emerge early and that are tied closely to distinctive modes of emotional expression. Thomas and Chess (1977, 1989) reported three main type of temperamental styles; Easy infants; happy, easily comforted, Slow to warm up infants; fussy and are less adaptive, and Difficult infants; negative, extreme reactions for example long periods of continuous crying. Hartup and Van Lieshout (1995), suggests that temperament has social implications for the way in which an infant relates to other people for example difficult infants are more likely to develop behavioural problems as they get older. A way to try and combat this behaviour is for caregivers to provide more stimulating challenges for the child and try to promote the children to act in a more pro-active manner (Smith, Cowie and Blades, 1998). Thus suggesting that although temperament can continue throughout life, using social techniques can reduce aspects of temperamental behaviour as the child develops. In conclusion, attachment to caregivers, language acquisition and a childs temperament are all influenced by social interaction, and can be seen that the lack of it can lead to developmental abnormalities in children. For infants to develop healthily in the first two years of their life, it appears that they need high amounts of cognitive stimulation, feelings of security from those that care for them, and encouragement for behaviour, so that the child can positively attribute their actions and use these social cues, for example smiling and babbling, to develop all the key skills that they will need as they grow up.

Galileo And The Telescope :: essays research papers

Galileo was not the person who invented the telescope, but he was the first one to use the telescope to study the heavens. He made many observations using the telescope that shocked the religious world. In this short essay, I will only focus on three observations and how an Aristotlean reacts to it. These observations played a very important role on the development of astronomy. The first object he observed was the moon. Through his observations he concluded that the moon’s surface was very irregular and imperfect. He saw that the moon’s surface had mountains and valleys. It also consists of many other irregular shapes. This was a very big contradiction to Aristotle’s theory. To Aristotleans the world was the center of the universe and that it was perfect. This showed us the holes in the celestial realm. It is not perfect like people believed it to be. If the moon had all of these imperfections, then any other member of the universe could also be this way. It also showed the Earth to be just a planet. Not the unique figure thought to be. It is not unique. In fact, it was regular because the moon also had the same properties. The second observation was the four moons of Jupiter. Galileo observed points of light that changed their positions with time around the Planet. These points he concluded were the four moons that orbit Jupiter. It showed that there were things in the heavens that Aristotle knew nothing about. The was not unique anymore because it wasn’t the only planet to have objects orbit it. And last but not least, Galileo saw that the Earth shines on the moon. It showed the Earth to be a little less celestial. The Earth can shine on another object like any regular object. It is not as special as initially thought to be. Aristotleans around the world did not want to accept these observations.

Essay --

Efficient communication between cells is crucial in governing cellular activities. Cytokines are a key element of the cell signaling process and mediate communication among cells. Cytokines are a type of small proteins released by cells that have an effect on the behavior of other cells. There are several different types of cytokines including interleukins, interferons, and tumour necrosis factor. Many different types of cells can produce cytokines, such as immune cells like macrophages, mast cells, and B lymphoctyes. Cytokines are especially important in the immune system because they help coordinate that balance between the cell-based immune response and the humoral immune response. There are several different factors that go into play in the function of cytokines and their effect. There are many different types of cytokines, and each cytokines has a matching cell-surface receptor. Cytokines bind to specific receptors on target cells with high affinity. Cascades of intercellular signaling following then have an effect on the function of cells. Depending on what type of cytokines,...

Pizza Hut †KFC Essay

Description: The Indian fast food market has been witnessing rapid growth on the back of positive developments and presence of massive investments. Currently, market growth is largely fuelled by the rising young population, working women, hectic schedules, and increasing disposable income of the middle-class households. Some of the unique properties of fast food like quick served, cost advantage, etc are making it highly popular among the masses. Thus, India offers enormous opportunities for both domestic as well as international players. According to this new research report, â€Å"Indian Fast Food Market Analysis†, the Indian Fast Food Industry is anticipated to grow at a CAGR of around 34% during 2011-2014. Anticipating the future growth, many big international players are entering into the market by making deals with the domestic players. And those already present in the Indian market are expanding their presence in different provinces of the country. This trend will emerge more strongly during BMI’s forecast period, providing opportunities to local players to widen their product portfolios. BMI research further revealed that there is a large scope of growth in the untapped tier-II and tier- III cities, owing to which, major fast food retailers have already started applying various marketing strategies in popularizing their brands in these cities. Furthermore, they are aiming to provide affordable and customized products to suit the needs of people that would ultimately provide necessary boost to the Indian fast food industry. The report also provides extensive information on the country’s fast food market, besides discussing the growing segments like Noodle market, Pizza market, and others food market. Thus, it provides valuable information about the Fast food companies and provides necessary insight for investors looking to enter this market. Moreover, the report features forecast for fast food sales in the country. The forecast is based on the correlation between past market growth and growth in base drivers, such as middle class, urbanization, cultural shift, and lifestyle changes. Due consideration is given on competitive landscape to enable clients to understand market structure and growth prospects. Contents: 1. Analyst View 2. Research Methodology 3. Indian Fast Food Potential 3. 1 Large Consumer Base 3. 2 Rising Purchasing Power 3. 3 Rapid Urbanization 3. 4 Changing Lifestyle 4. Indian Fast Food Market Analysis 4. 1 Market Size and Growth 4. 2 Performance by Product 4. 2. 1 Pizza 4. 2. 2 Instant Noodles and Pasta 4. 2. 3 Others 5. Consumer Behavior Analysis 6. Vital Industry Trends 6. 1 Rapid Expansion in Tier-II and Tier-III Cities 6. 2 Franchise – Preferred Way for Business Expansion 6. 3 A Stiff Competition from Ethnic Fast Food 6. 4 Product Customization Considering Indian Customs 7. Industry Regulation Analysis 8. Market Leaders and their Expansion Plans 8. 1 McDonald 8. 2 Domino’s Pizza 8. 3 Pizza Hut 8. 4 KFC. 8. 5 Nirula’s List of Tables Table 3-1: Population Breakup by Age Group (%), 2011 & 2014 Table 8-1: McDonald – Strength and Weakness Analysis Table 8-2: Domino’s Pizza – Strength and Weakness Analysis Table 8-3: Pizza Hut – Strength and Weakness Analysis Table 8-4: KFC – Strength and Weakness Analysis Table 8-5: Nirula – Strength and Weakness Analysis List of Charts Figure 3-1: Population (Billion), 2010-2014 Figure 3-2: Per Head Disposable Income (US$), 2010-2014 Figure 3-3: Urban Population (Million), 2010-2014 Figure 3-4: Frequency of Eating Out (2003 & 2009) Figure 4-1: Fast Food Market (Billion INR), 2010-2014. Figure 4-2: Pizza Market (Billion INR), 2010-2014 Figure 4-3: Instant Pasta and Noodles Market (Billion INR), 2010-2014 Figure 4-4: Other Fast Food Market (Billion INR), 2010-2014 Ordering: Order Online – http://www. researchandmarkets. com/reports/1246140/ Order by Fax – using the form below Order by Post – print the order form below and send to Research and Markets, Guinness Centre, Taylors Lane, Dublin 8, Ireland. Page 1 of 2 Fax Order Form To place an order via fax simply print this form, fill in the information below and fax the completed form to 646-607- 1907 (from USA) or +353-1-481-1716 (from Rest of World). If you have any questions please visit http://www. researchandmarkets. com/contact/ Order Information Please verify that the product information is correct and select the format(s) you require. Product Formats Please select the product formats and quantity you require: * Shipping/Handling is only charged once per order. Contact Information Please enter all the information below in BLOCK CAPITALS Product Name: Indian Fast Food Market Analysis Web Address: http://www. researchandmarkets. com/reports/1246140/ Office Code: OC8DIRPKPRUPSS Quantity Electronic – Single User: EUROâ‚ ¬ 621. 00 CD ROM: EUROâ‚ ¬ 777. 00 + Euro â‚ ¬50 Shipping/Handling Hard Copy: EUROâ‚ ¬ 777. 00 + Euro â‚ ¬50 Shipping/Handling Electronic – Enterprisewide: EUROâ‚ ¬ 932. 00 Title: Mr Mrs Dr Miss Ms Prof First Name: Last Name: Email Address: * Job Title: Organisation: Address: City: Postal / Zip Code: Country: Phone Number: Fax Number: * Please refrain from using free email accounts when ordering (e. g. Yahoo, Hotmail, AOL) Page 1 of 2 Payment Information Please indicate the payment method you would like to use by selecting the appropriate box. Please fax this form to: (646) 607-1907 or (646) 964-6609 – From USA +353-1-481-1716 or +353-1-653-1571 – From Rest of World.

Banh Chung

Banh chung Each country’s cuisine isn't simply a habit of eating and drinking, people also consider about the culinary sophistication, assess country’s culture. Referring to Korea, we all know about Kim chi – the proud of Korea's traditional foods; and sushi is a famous food of Japan. Similar, Vietnamese are also have their traditional foods. Beside of ph? , bun bo hu? , or nem nu? ng, Banh chung is also a proud of VietNam.The dictionary definition of Banh chung as a traditional Vietnamese rice cake which is made from glutinous rice, mung bean, pork and other ingredients. However, it isn’t enough to explain the meaning of Banh chung. Behind that simple cake is a long story about family’s love. According to the book Linh Nam chich quai (Extraordinary stories of Linh Nam) published in 1695, this cake was created by Lang Lieu- the prince of the sixth Hung Vuong; it represents the heart of the child for his father and symbolizes the vitality of the univ erse.According to Lang Lieu, a square cake symbolizes the earth (under the concept of the ancients), and the raw materials to create a cake to show the vitality of all things in universe (animal and plant). This is a traditional cake which every Vietnamese have in Lunar New Year. We use la dong to wrap the cake in square form before boiling it. Mung bean, fatty pork and black pepper, salt, sometimes green onion, and fish sauce for spices are added inside the glutinous rice. When eating cake, people like to add fish sauce or eating with c? i? u (tubers procession), dua m? m (cucumber sauce) or salt radish†¦

Alternative Culture Medium for Fungi Essay

Scope and Delimitation This study is focused on how to produce ointment out of banana and papaya fruit peelings extract to help avoiding fungal infections. It must be done within a laboratory. The place must be conducive for only a matter of years. This study builds upon on how to lessen fungal infection. We only used 200g of chopped fruit peels (banana and papaya), 1.5 distilled water, 3 gulaman bars and etc. This product efficiency must estimate three trials having three replication each. After three trials that the study is not proved, it will be considered failure. The paper covers five important chapters namely: the problem and its background, theoretical concept, methodology, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data and summary, conclusion and recommendation that will explain further this study. This product diminishing fungal infection concluded that it must be solve first the basic reason for the occurrence of fungal infections produced by the combination of chemicals. These chemicals are studied to produce bad effects to the consumers of this product and may lead to allergy when it is not resolved for longer time. Chapter II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Review of related Literature Studies conducted by different researches were proved to support this investigatory project. Naomi (2012), when I was a child I suffered with mild eczema. It slowly diminished, but as an adult I still have sensitive skin which is prone to developing dry areas. As a result, looking after my skin is very important to me and I am constantly on the lookout for new skincare products which may be suited to my troublesome skin. One such product that I recently discovered is the cult beauty classic, Papaya (or pawpaw) Ointment. PURE’s Papaya Ointment has become a must-have in Australia, where it originates from, and is becoming increasingly popular in the UK and Europe because of its skin healing properties. The science behind the sauce is this†¦ The papaya fruit which this ointment contains is extremely rich in nutrients, and due to its anti-inflammatory properties has been used throughout Australian history to treat skin complaints. The skin’s pH naturally sits at a lightly acidic 5.5 (known as the skin’s acid mantle), but this can be made more alkaline by shower gels and soaps, which in turn can irritate the skin. Papaya ointment helps to hydrate the skin and bring the pH level back down to an appropriate level, using the probiotics that are used to ferment the papaya before it is made into ointment. PURE Papaya Ointment is petrochemical-free and contains only natural ingredients, so there’s nothing nasty and chemically in it to cause any irritation. All the ingredients are carefully chosen for their beneficial properties too. For instance, Shea Butter, Jojoba Oil and Macadamia Oil are intensely moisturizing and nourishing, Calendula is anti-fungal which helps to prevent some skin diseases, Vitamin E helps to heal and protect the skin and Beeswax is insoluble in water so forms a protective barrier on the skin. Because of its healing properties and because it is so nourishing, PURE Papaya Oi ntment has an endless list of uses. I have been using it for weeks now, and I have found it to be invaluably versatile. The backs of my hands are naturally very dry, which is only made worse by hot showers and using cleaning products, which often cause the skin to crack. Using the ointment as a moisturizer has softened the skin on my hands and has stopped them chapping, which I am so, so happy about. I’ve also been massaging it into my cuticles on a regular basis to condition them, which has made my nails look a lot better. I used it to calm an insect bite last week too, and as a lip balm when I accidentally bit my lip and made it sore. PURE also state that the ointment can be used to soothe nappy rash, sun burn or weather-irritated skin, to moisten sore nipples caused by breastfeeding, to soften calluses, as skin protection by runners or hill-walkers, to soothe skin after shaving or epilating, as a natural hair styling wax and much more. The product is also very popular with make-up artists, who use it as a base for make-up and on the lips of models as, because it doesn’t contain petroleum jelly, it doesn’t melt or sweat under hot lights. PURE sell three different sized containers of Papaya Ointment, which can also be bought in bundles. The 25g squeezy tube pictured costs  £9.99 and is the perfect size to carry with you in your handbag. For  £19.99 you can get a large 100g tube, or for  £35.99 there’s a 200g jar of ointment available, both of which are a great size for the bathroom cabinet or for use by make-up artists. If you want to try PURE Papaya Ointment for yourself, visit the PURE Papaya website here. After featuring in their Must Haves Beauty Kit, PURE recently teamed up with BeTrousse to offer a 20% discount on their products. The Difficulties of fruit dealers, it’s not different from other market dealers in a certain way. Commonly, problem occurs when delivering it results of disadvantages. For example, traffic, road constructions, and even weather disturbances. All of these are stated here in the review for the fact that these can be a reason of fruit spoilage. Choosing an appropriate fruit shouldn’t be lost here either. Fruits commonly seen in the market would be like apple, banana, oranges, mango, and any other fruits. And I say banana would easy to be eaten. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant. The plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy and are often mistaken for trees, but their main or upright stem is actually a pseudo stem that grows 6 to 7.6 meters (20 to 24.9 ft.) tall, growing from a corm. Banana is a staple starch for many tropical populations. The flesh can vary in texture from firm to mushy. Both skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. Bananasà ¢â‚¬â„¢ flavor is due, amongst other chemicals, to isoamyl acetate which is one of the main constituents of banana oil. Banana hearts are used as vegetables in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods. The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible. Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as â€Å"plates† in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries and may be also used as umbrellas when the pseudo stems are tied together to form a floatation device only in regions where banana grows. The tender core of the banana plant’s trunk is also used in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, and notably in the Burmese dish mohinga (rice noodles in fish soup) Banana peel may also have capability to extract heavy metal contamination from river water, similar to other purification materials. (Most of it is taken from Wikipedia) Papaya with the scientific name, Carica papaya is a common fruit to be found in tropical countries. It is a succulent fruit of the family Caricaceas. Papayas are usually grown from seed. Their development is rapid, fruit being produced before the end of the first year. Under favorable conditions, a papaya plant may live for five years or more. Papaya is oval in shape and the colour of the skin is green if unripe. It will turn to green yellowish when it is ripe. The flesh of papaya is white before maturity, turns to a rich orange-yellow or deep rose when ripe, with colour varying according to variety. Papaya fruit is sweet in taste, with an agreeable musky tang, which is more pronounced in some varieties and in some climates than in others. Papaya has been regarded as one of the most valuable tropical fruits that contains many biological active compounds. Filamentous fungi of 84 genera, represented by 234 species, were isolated in the period 1919–1977, from such library materials as books, paper, parchment, feather, textiles, animal and vegetable glues, inks, wax seals, moving pictures, magnetic tapes, microfilms, black and white photographs, papyrus, wood, and synthetic materials (in books). Thirty-four genera of fungi have been isolated in the air of three archives in Warsaw, Poland. Most of these have also been found in library materials. Based on 219 isolations from library materials, a list of 40 species of filamentous fungi has been provided for those species isolated with a frequency of three times or more. Despite 80 years of investigations into the microbiology of library materials there is still a substantial lack of information on fungi colonizing library materials in North and South America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Among the 84 genera and 234 species of filamentous fungi, 19% may be a source of different diseases caused by mycotoxins. So far though, nobody has labelled libraries ‘sick’ buildings. In addition, culture collections do not seem to acquire or retain strains isolated from library materials (e.g. IMI in Egham, UK, retains over 16 500 strains, yet none of these strains are isolated from library materials). Review of related Studies Moore-Landecker (1998), studied the fungi of mycology. At various points throughout history, fungi have been considered to be either plants or animals. It was finally concluded that fungi are neither plants nor animals, but are a distinct group. Fungi are now considered one of the five kingdoms into which all living organisms are classified. Fungi have a unique cellular structure and an unusual pattern of sexual reproduction. They may be single-celled or multicelled organisms (the great majority are multicelled), in which each cell contains a nucleus. Examples of fungi include puffballs, mushrooms, yeasts, and molds. Fungi have an unusual cellular structure in that the nuclei stream between cells, making it appear as if the cells have multiple nuclei. This cellular structure, along with their unique method of reproducing by forming spores, distinguishes the fungi from all other organisms. Fungi are heterotrophs, meaning they cannot produce their own food from inorganic matter (not de rived from living organisms). Fungi secrete enzymes that breakdown organic matter (derived from living organisms) outside their bodies. Their cells then absorb the products. The digestive activities of fungi are essential in the decomposition (breakdown) of organic material and the cycling of nutrients in nature. Some fungi, called saprobes, obtain nutrients from nonliving organic matter. Other fungi are parasites, meaning they obtain nutrients from the tissues of living host organisms. Toe jam (2007), studied that some Fungi cause a number of human, plant, and animal diseases, while the others provide numerous drugs (such as penicillin and other antibiotics), foods (e.g., various Mushrooms, Truffles and Morels, and various Yeasts which are used in bread, champagne, and beer). Other common Fungi are rusts, smuts, puffballs, molds, many Ascomycetes such as the agents of Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. However, many other fungi are biotrophs, and in this role a number of successful groups form symbiotic associations with plants (including algae), animals (especially arthropods), and prokaryotes. Examples are lichens, mycorrhizae, and leaf and stem endophytes. Among the other well-known associations are fungal parasites of animals. Humans, for example, may succumb to diseases caused by Pneumocystis (a type of pneumonia that affects individuals with supressed immune systems), Coccidioides (valley fever), Ajellomyces (blastomycosis and histoplasmosis), and Cryptococcus. Lichens (1887), studied that some of the fungi familiar to people are used in fermentation, such as Saccharomyces sp., which can be used to make bread or wine and only can be seen with microscope. Some members of order Mucorales (Zygomycota) are used to make fermented soy beans. Rhizopus sp. that grows on old bread are also members of Zygomycota. Penicillin, widely used in medicine, is made from Penicillium sp., a member of Mitosporic fungi. Many edible fungi, such as Lentinusedodes (Berk.), Agaricus bisporus and auricularia, are members of Basidiomycota. In addition to their use as food and medicine, fungi are also important players in nature. Many fungi, such as wood-rotting fungi and Piloboous sp., participate in the decomposition process of bio remains or organic matters, accelerating the cycle and use of natural substances. Some fungi are parasitic and may cause diseases. For example, cordyceps sinensis is the host insect of Cordyceps sp. Ganoderma sp. lives on trees parasitically and causes damage to them. Many fungi form mutually-beneficial symbiotic relations with other life forms. For instance, lichens, commonly seen in the forests or woods, are symbiotic life forms consisting of fungi and algae. Root systems of a vast majority of seed plants and members of Endogonaceae may form endomycorrhiza relationship, which enhances the ability of plants to absorb nutrients from the soil. Many species of fungi form ectomycorrhiza relationship with plants. In short, fungi of various kinds play an important role in both natural ecosystems and our daily life. However, our knowledge of them is still quite limited. The book introduces members of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota in the hope that the general public can know more about them and more students can be inspired to join the research work of this biological field. Gauthier (2003), according to her that the children, especially during the summer time when they spend a lot of time outdoors, can often get scrapes on their knees and elbows. Carpet burns from sitting on the ground too long can also occur. Instead of using a commercially-sold ointment from the pharmacy, use a banana peel to alleviate the pain from the scrape and promote healing. Cut a small portion of the banana peel and rub the inside of the peel against the scrape or carpet burn. The inside of the banana peel acts as ointment to help heal the wound. Bobby Gene (1998), conducted an extract composition derived from the peel of a banana and the method for producing the extract composition. An aqueous solvent is combined with the peel of a banana. If the banana is unripe, a base is also added. The mixture is homogenized and allowed to react at least until a black supernatant appears. The entire slurry is filtered. The resulting extract is used alone or combined with a cream or ointment. Medicinal benefits of the extract include relief from pain, swelling, itching, bruising, wrinkles, and sunburn. Boyle (2003), studied that people can use papaya ointment to help sterilize and heal rashes, burns, and open cuts. It is also popular for treating dry skin, eczema, and other skin irritations. Some individuals find that it works to reduce skin blemishes, pimples, and acne. Basically, it can be used on any skin condition for which a person might otherwise apply another type of commercial antibiotic. It is also available as a lip balm to treat cracked, chapped, or peeling lips. To make papaya ointment, manufacturers ferment the fruit of the pawpaw and typically combine it with other stabilizing ingredients, such as petroleum jelly and preservatives. The thick, pale-yellow gel that is produced has a vague, sour odor. Some manufacturers combine the papaya ointment with other ingredients to enhance its skin-softening and healing properties and mask the unpleasant smell. For instance, coconut oil, aloe, or honey might be combined with pawpaw extract to create a product that encompasses the benefits of each while having a pleasant fragrance. Some individuals prefer a purer form of papaya ointment, and some retailers sell all-natural products containing no added preservatives or other ingredients. For those seeking the purest approach, the moist underside of the peel from a raw papaya actually contains a sticky substance that many claim has all the benefits of manufactured lotions. If a person is lucky enough to have regular access to pawpaw fruit, he or she can take advantage of the healing benefits by rubbing the peel directly onto the problem skin areas. As a caveat, some people might have a sensitivity to papaya or the ingredients used in the manufacture of papaya ointment. In that event, using the salve could actually cause additional, more serious skin irritation. Further, there is some evidence that papaya, especially when not completely ripened, could affect a woman’s ability to become pregnant. Consequently, individuals who are trying to become pregnant are advised against usingpapaya ointment. According to Hawks worth (1992), there are approximate a little 1.5 million described species of fungi. A little more than 400 of these species are known to cause disease in animals, and far fewer of these species will specifically cause disease in people. Many of the latter will only be superficial types of diseases that are more of a cosmetic than a health problem. Thus, there are not many species of fungi that are pathogenic to human that will be fatal. The study of Fungi as animal and human pathogens is medical mycology. There is also such a thing as veterinary mycology, but the types of diseases that are found in your pets often are the same as those that are found in people. Because of the rarity of human diseases caused by Fungi, most people have little, if any, knowledge of such diseases. The diseases of warm-blooded animals caused by fungi are known as mycoses. Although such diseases are relatively few, the fungi that cause them have a wide host as well as geographical range. Most of these diseases are not fatal, but once contracted; they may forever be a source of constant irritation and can lead to permanent scaring, which is why they are not such a pretty sight to view. The successful treatment of fungal diseases is more difficult than those caused by bacteria. Because bacteria are prokaryotes, the makeup of their cells are very different than our own eukaryotic cells and pharmaceutical products, such as antibiotics, are able to successfully destroy bacteria without harming our cells, tissues and organs. However, because fungi are eukaryotes, finding a treatment that will kill the fungus and not harm our own cells is more difficult. Thus, most chemical treatments are also toxic us as well as the fungus. The most widely used drug for treating systemic mycosis and other fungal infections that do not respond to other drugs is Amphotericin B. Azole drugs are also widely used, but these only inhibited fungal growth and do not kill the fungus. Conceptual Framework Hypothesis a.) Both Banana and papaya peels extract would be an alternative culture medium for fungi. b.) Only the banana peel extract will be the alternative culture medium for fungi c.) Only the papaya peel extract would be an alternative culture medium for fungi d.) Both banana and papaya peels extract will not be an alternative culture medium for fungi. Definition of Variables a.) Banana Bananas are the most popular fruit in the world. Members of the genus Musa (part of the family Musaceae), they are considered to be derived from the wild species Musa acuminata (AA) and Musa balbisiana (BB). It is believed that there are almost 1000 varieties of bananas in the world, subdivided in 50 groups. b.) Papaya Papaya is a luscious fruit that has been taken for granted. Papaya fruits are good sources of Vitamin A, B and C. It is a familiar meat tenderizer because for clearing fruit juices, on fermenting liquors, pre-shrinking the quality of wool and as soap for washing clothes. Papaya possesses medicinal values. c.) Fungi Fungi constitute one of the life kingdoms. Fungi are eukaryotic (eu=true; karyon=nucleus) organisms with a cell wall like plants, but they do not have chlorophyll. Fungi are not able to ingest their food like animals do, nor can they manufacture their own food the way plants do. Instead, fungi feed by absorption of nutrients from the surrounding environment. They accomplish this by growing through and within the substrate on which they are feeding. d.) Extract To withdraw (as a juice or fraction) by physical or chemical process or to treat with a solvent so as to remove a soluble substance. e.) Feasibility Capable of being used or dealt with successfully f.) Experiment An operation or procedure carried out under controlled conditions in order to discover an unknown effect or law, to test or establish a hypothesis, or to illustrate a known law g.) Potato dextrose agar Potato dextrose agar (BAM Media M127) is common microbiological growth media[->0] made from potato[->1] infusion[->2], and dextrose[->3]. Potato dextrose agar (abbreviated â€Å"PDA†) is the most widely used medium for growing fungi and bacteria which attack living plants or decaying dead plant matter. Potato Dextrose Agar is a nutrient rich media that mycelia thrive upon. h.) Fruit peels Peel, also known as rind or skin, is the outer protective layer of a fruit[->4] or vegetable[->5] which could be peeled off. The rind is usually the botanical[->6] exocarp[->7], but the term exocarp does also include the hard cases of nuts[->8], which are not named peels since they are not peeled off by hand or peeler, but rather shells because of their hardness. i.) Autoclave a device for sterilizing implements using steam at high temperature. Conceptual Framework Hypothesis a.) Both banana and papaya peels extract would be an alternative culture medium for fungi. b.) Only banana peel extract will be an alternative culture medium for fungi. c.) Only papaya peel extract would be an alternative culture medium for fungi. Definition of Variables Banana The banana plant is the largest herbaceous[->9] flowering plant. The plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy and are often mistaken for trees[->10], but their main or upright stem is actually apseudostem[->11] that grows 6 to 7.6 metres (20 to 24.9 ft.) tall, growing from a corm[->12]. Each pseudo stem can produce a single bunch of bananas. After fruiting, the pseudo stem dies, but offshoots may develop from the base of the plant. Many varieties of bananas are perennial Papaya The papaya is a large, tree[->13]-like plant[->14], with a single stem[->15] growing from 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft.) tall, with spirally arranged leaves[->16] confined to the top of the trunk[->17]. The lower trunk is conspicuously scarred[->18] where leaves and fruit were borne. The leaves are large, 50–70 cm (20–28 in) in diameter[->19], deeply palmately[->20] lobed, with seven lobes. Unusually for such large plants, the trees are dioeciously[->21]. The tree is usually unbranched, unless lopped. The flowers are similar in shape to the flowers of the Plumeria[->22], but are much smaller and wax[->23]-like. They appear on the axils[->24] of the leaves, maturing into large fruit – 15–45 cm (5.9–18 in) long and 10–30 cm (3.9–12 in) in diameter. The fruit is ripe[->25] when it feels soft (as soft as a ripe avocado or a bit softer) and its skin has attained amber to orange hue. Fungi A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic[->26] organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts[->27] and molds[->28] as well as the more familiar mushrooms[->29]. These organisms are classified as a kingdom[->30], Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria[->31]. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls[->32] that contain chitin[->33], unlike the cell walls of plants, which contain cellulose[->34]. These and other differences show that the fungi form a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor[->35] (a monophyletic group). This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similarmyxomycetes[->36] (slime molds) and omycetes[->37] (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology[->38], which is often regarded as a branch of botany[->39], even though genetic studies have shown that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. Potato dextrose agar Potato dextrose agar (BAM Media M127) and potato dextrose broth are common microbiological growth media[->40] made from potato[->41] infusion[->42], and dextrose[->43]. Potato dextrose agar (abbreviated â€Å"PDA†) is the most widely used medium for growing fungi and bacteria which attack living plants or decaying dead plant matter. Gulaman The gulaman jelly bars are used in the various Filipino refreshments or desserts such assago at gulaman (or gulaman at sago, commonly shortened to sago’t gulaman), buko pandan, agar flan, halo-halo[->44], different varieties of Filipino fruit salads, black gulaman, and red gulaman. CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK Review of related literature Studies conducted by different researches were proved to support this investigatory project. Fungi exist primarily as filamentous dikaryotic organisms. As part of their life cycle, fungi produce spores. In this electron micrograph of a mushroom gill, the four spores produced by meiosis (seen in the center of this picture) are carried on a club like sporangium (visible to the left and right). From these spores, haploid hyphae grow and ramify, and may give rise to asexual sporangia, special hyphae which produce spores without meiosis. The sexual phase is begun when haploid hyphae from two different fungal organisms meet and fuse. When this occurs, the cytoplasm from the two cells fuses, but the nuclei remain separate and distinct. The single hypha produced by fusion typically has two nuclei per â€Å"cell†, and is known as a dikaryon, meaning â€Å"two nuclei†. The dikaryon may live and grow for years, and some are thought to be many centuries old. Eventually, the dikaryon forms sexual sporangia in which the nuclei fuse into one, which then undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores, and the cycle, is repeated. Some fungi, especially the chytrids[->45] and zygomycetes, have a life cycle more like that found in many protists[->46]. The organism is haploid, and has no diploid phase, except for the sexual sporangium. A number of fungi have lost the capacity for sexual reproduction, and reproduce by asexual spores or by vegetative growth only. These fungi are referred to as Fungi Imperfecti, and include, among other members, the athlete’s foot and the fungus in bleu cheese. Other fungi, such as the yeasts, primarily reproduce through asexual fission, or by fragmentation — breaking apart, with each of the pieces growing into a new organism. Fungi are heterotrophic. Fungi are not able to ingest their food like animals do, nor can they manufacture their own food the way plants do. Instead, fungi feed by absorption of nutrients from the environment around them. They accomplish this by growing through and within the substrate on which they are feeding. Numerous hyphae network through the wood, cheese, soil, or flesh from which they are growing. The hyphae secrete digestive enzymes which break down the substrate, making it easier for the fungus to absorb the nutrients which the substrate contains. This filamentous growth means that the fungus is in intimate contact with its surroundings; it has a very large surface area compared to its volume. While this makes diffusion of nutrients into the hyphae easier, it also makes the fungus susceptible to desiccation and ion imbalance. But usually this is not a problem, since the fungus is growing within a moist substrate. Most fungi are saprophytes, feeding on dead or decaying material. This helps to remove leaf litter and other debris that would otherwise accumulate on the ground. Nutrients absorbed by the fungus then become available for other organisms which may eat fungi. A very few fungi actively capture prey, such as Arthrobotrys which snares nematodes on which it feeds. Many fungi are parasitic, feeding on living organisms without killing them. Ergot, corn smut, Dutch elm disease, and ringworm are all diseases caused by parasitic fungi. Mycorrhizae are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plants. Most plants[->47] rely on a symbiotic fungus to aid them in acquiring water and nutrients from the soil. The specialized roots which the plants grow and the fungus which inhabits them are together known as mycorrhizae, or â€Å"fungal roots†. The fungus, with its large surface area, is able to soak up water and nutrients over a large area and provide them to the plant. In return, the plant provides energy-rich sugars manufactured through photosynthesis. Examples of mycorrhizal fungi include truffles and Auricular IA, the mushroom which flavors sweet-and-sour soup. In some cases, such as the vanilla orchid[->48] and many other orchids, the young plant cannot establish itself at all without the aid of its fungal partner. In liverworts, mosses, lycophytes[->49], ferns, conifers, and flowering plants[->50], fungi form a symbiotic relationship with the plant. Because mycorrhizal associations are found in so many plants, it is thought that they may have been an essential element in the transition of plants onto the land. Fungi are classified within their own kingdom – The Kingdom Fungi, while some are in The Kingdom Protista. A fungus is neither a plant nor an animal. It is similar to a plant, but it has no chlorophyll and cannot make its own food like a plant can through photosynthesis. They get their food by absorbing nutrients from their surroundings. Kingdom Fungi includes mushrooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, truffles, morels, molds, and yeasts, and thousands of other organisms and microorganisms. They range from microscopic single-celled organisms, such as yeast, to gigantic multicellular organisms. Many fungi play a crucial role in decomposition (breaking things down) and returning nutrients to the soil. They are also used in medicine, an example is the antibiotic[->51] penicillin, as well as in industry and food preparation. For a long time fungi were classified as plants, mainly because of their similar lifestyles – both are seen to grow in soil and are sessile (permanently attached; not moving). Plant and fungal cells both have a cell wall, while cells from the animal kingdom don’t. Fungi are thought to have diverged from the plant and animal kingdoms about one billion years ago. Mycology is the study of fungi – it is a branch of biology. A mycologist studies fungi’s genes, biochemical properties, their use to us as a source of food, their hallucinogenic, poisonous and pathogenic (ability to cause disease) properties. It was not until the 16th century, when the microscope was developed, that mycology became a well-established science. Review of related Studies Brendan (1986), conducted an extract composition derived from the peel of a banana and the method for producing the extract composition. An aqueous solvent is combined with the peel of a banana. If the banana is unripe, a base is also added. The mixture is homogenized and allowed to react at least until a black supernatant appears. The entire slurry is filtered. The resulting extract is used alone or combined with a cream or ointment. Medicinal benefits of the extract include relief from pain, swelling, itching, bruising, wrinkles, and sunburn. Hudson (1988), studied that papaya is a fruit that contains precious enzymes like chymopapain and papain that assist our digestion process. The enzymes specifically help to convert proteins from the food that we consume into amino acids. Recent research has shown how amino acids act as a key agent in various processes concerning our physical and mental health,including chemical reactions that take place in our bodies. As we grow older the production of digestive enzymes slows within our pancreas and stomach, and this causes the digestion of protein to become less effective. The result is an excess of undigested proteins that help fight the growth of the harmful bacteria within the gastrointestinal system and the absence of important amino acids that facilitate all vital chemical reactions. In order to maintain good health, it is absolutely essential to retain quality protein. The enzymes in papaya play a crucial role in this process. Proteolytic enzymes such as papain digest non-livi ng or inert proteins. Intestinal parasites are attacked and killed by papain as these parasites are made of protein. Research is being conducted in relation to the use of papain for relieving the side effects of cancer therapy. It is known to effectively ease side effects such as mouth sores and problems with swallowing following chemotherapy and radiation sessions. It prepares our body to fight cancer and strengthens our immune system as well. Fermented papaya enzymes are used by an Australian company known as Rochway to create a product called papaya35. This product is made out of organically grown papaya. Their probiotic papaya mixture has antioxidant properties that strongly resist harmful molecules in our bodies. Cancer, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and diabetes are all caused by these same harmful molecules. Numerous studies are being carried out on the benefits of papaya, and new benefits are being added to a long list. If you are interested in the current studies being conducted you can find more information at PubMed.gov. You’re likely to come across a useful papaya ointment if you search the market or alternatively, you can consume fresh papaya fruit. If you are seeking the therapeutic effects of consuming papaya, you may take note that ripe papaya contains chymopapain and papain (proteolytic enzymes) in lesser amounts than green papaya (as it has not ripened at this point). Strakosch 1943 experimental studies on the penetration of the following substances: lard, cod liver oil, olive oil, petrolatum, vaseline (Chesebrough), lanolin, petrolatum and lanolin to equal parts, â€Å"Aquaphor† (Duke), petrolatum plus five per cent cetyl alcohol, a base consisting of mannide monooleate-ceresin wax-petrolatum-mineral oil-lanolin, â€Å"Hydrosorb† (Abbott), rose water ointment USP., lecithin ointment, a base consisting of stearyl alcohol-mineral oil-water-petrolatum and a base consisting of liquid petrolatum-peanut oil-triethanolamine-stearic acidcetyl alcohol and water, were reported. The relative intensity of the penetration into the normal human skin of the different test substances listed in the order from the best to the worst penetration, as revealed by this study is as follows: the base consisting of: liquid petrolatum-peanut oil-steric acid-triethanolamine-acetyl alcohol and water; â€Å"Hydrosorb† (Abbott), â€Å"Aquaphor† (Dule), lard, cold liver oil, stearyl alcohol-mineral oil-water-petrolatum, lanolin, a base consisting of mannide monooleate-ceresin wax-petrolatum-mineral oil-lanolin, lecithin ointment, petrolatum and lanolin to equal parts, petrolatum plus five per cent cetyl alcohol, olive oil, rose water ointment, vaseline (Chesebrough), and finally petrolatum as such. [->0] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium [->1] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato [->2] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusion [->3] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose [->4] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit [->5] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable [->6] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany [->7] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocarp [->8] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_%28fruit%29 [->9] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous [->10] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree [->11] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudostem [->12] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corm [->13] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree [->14] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant [->15] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_stem [->16] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf [->17] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trunk_(botany) [->18] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scar [->19] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diameter [->20] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmate [->21] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioecious [->22] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumeria [->23] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax [->24] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axil [->25] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripening [->26] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote [->27] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast [->28] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold [->29] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushrooms [->30] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_(biology) [->31] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria [->32] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall [->33] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin [->34] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose [->35] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ancestor [->36] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxomycetes [->37] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomycetes [->38] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology [->39] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany [->40] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium [->41] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato [->42] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infusion [->43] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose [->44] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo-halo [->45] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/chytrids.html [->46] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/eukaryotasy.html [->47] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/plantae.html [->48] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/liliflorae/orchidales.html [->49] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/lycophyta/lycophyta.html [->50] – http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anthophyta/anthophyta.html [->51] – http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/10278.php